Conquest
After the birth of Islam, the religion spread quickly through conquest. In the year 641, the fortress of Babylon, located in North-East Africa fell to a Muslim army. By the year 708, the Muslim army had conquered the city of Tangiers in North-West Africa, and the majority of Northern Africa was under Muslim rule as part of the Umayyad Caliphate.
Before Islamic Rule, the Iberian Peninsula (what is now Spain and Portugal) was ruled by the Visigoths. Around the year 710, the death of the Visigothic King Witzia lead to the collapse of the Visigothic kingdom. In 711, Iberia was conquered rapidly and brought under the control of the Umayyad Caliphate.
Before Islamic Rule, the Iberian Peninsula (what is now Spain and Portugal) was ruled by the Visigoths. Around the year 710, the death of the Visigothic King Witzia lead to the collapse of the Visigothic kingdom. In 711, Iberia was conquered rapidly and brought under the control of the Umayyad Caliphate.
Key rulers
ABD AL-RAHMAN I (ruled 756 to 788)
From 661 to 750, the Muslim Empire was ruled by the Umayyads. This vast territory included the Middle East, North Africa, and the Iberian Peninsula. In 750, the Abbasid family overthrew the Umayyads, and took control of most of their territory. One of the Umayyad princes, Abd al-Rahman I, fled to Al-Andalus and in 756, declared it an independent emirate.
AL-HAKAM I (ruled 792-822)
The third ruler of the Emirate of Al-Andalus, al-Hakam I, faced an uprising against his rule, after which he made a series of reforms to strengthen the power of the Emirs of Cordoba. He established a professional salaried army, appointed and publicly designated his heir to ensure a peaceful succession, and introduced complex fiscal machinery that allowed him to raise taxes. Al-Hakam also invited the musician and scholar Ziryab to settle in al-Andalus. However, by the time he arrived, the Emir was dead.
ABD AL-RAHMAN II (ruled 822 to 852)
The next ruler, Emir Abd al-Rahman II, built a mint in Cordoba and started to mint gold and silver coins. He also established a series of workshops for the production of embroidered silk and luxury fabrics. The scholar Ziryab became a close confident of Al-Rahman, leading to a growth of culture in al-Andalus.
ABD AL-RAHMAN III (ruled 912 to 961)
In 929, Emir Abd Al-Rahman III declared al-Andalus a Caliphate "the Caliphate of Cordoba" and himself as Caliph.
AL-HAKAM II (ruled 961 to 976)
The second Caliph of Cordoba, Al-Hakam II, became ruler when he was forty-six years old. By this point, he was already an experienced administrator. During his reign, he was a patron of culture, science, and scholarship. He had a deep love for books, libraries, and literature.
From 661 to 750, the Muslim Empire was ruled by the Umayyads. This vast territory included the Middle East, North Africa, and the Iberian Peninsula. In 750, the Abbasid family overthrew the Umayyads, and took control of most of their territory. One of the Umayyad princes, Abd al-Rahman I, fled to Al-Andalus and in 756, declared it an independent emirate.
AL-HAKAM I (ruled 792-822)
The third ruler of the Emirate of Al-Andalus, al-Hakam I, faced an uprising against his rule, after which he made a series of reforms to strengthen the power of the Emirs of Cordoba. He established a professional salaried army, appointed and publicly designated his heir to ensure a peaceful succession, and introduced complex fiscal machinery that allowed him to raise taxes. Al-Hakam also invited the musician and scholar Ziryab to settle in al-Andalus. However, by the time he arrived, the Emir was dead.
ABD AL-RAHMAN II (ruled 822 to 852)
The next ruler, Emir Abd al-Rahman II, built a mint in Cordoba and started to mint gold and silver coins. He also established a series of workshops for the production of embroidered silk and luxury fabrics. The scholar Ziryab became a close confident of Al-Rahman, leading to a growth of culture in al-Andalus.
ABD AL-RAHMAN III (ruled 912 to 961)
In 929, Emir Abd Al-Rahman III declared al-Andalus a Caliphate "the Caliphate of Cordoba" and himself as Caliph.
AL-HAKAM II (ruled 961 to 976)
The second Caliph of Cordoba, Al-Hakam II, became ruler when he was forty-six years old. By this point, he was already an experienced administrator. During his reign, he was a patron of culture, science, and scholarship. He had a deep love for books, libraries, and literature.
The end of Umayyad rule in al-andalus
When Caliph al-Hakam II died, his sucessor, Hisham II, was only eleven years old. Consequently, the court official Muhammad ibn Abi Amir, known as al-Mansur or Almanzor, took control of the Caliphate. Almanzor assumed all political authority, and continued to rule even after Hisham turned eighteen. The role of Caliph became a powerless one.
Towards the end of his reign, Almanzor forced the Caliph to issue a formal declaration, recognising his sons as the rulers of al-Andalus upon his death. Almanzor's son, Abd al-Rahman Sanchuelo, later convinced Hisham to appoint him as heir to the Caliphate. However, Abd al-Rahman Sanchuelo was captured and killed, and another Umayyad, Muhammad al-Mahdi, deposed Hisham as Caliph. After this, al-Andalus saw a period of great instability that eventually resulted in the Caliphate of Cordoba fracturing into multiple smaller states.
Towards the end of his reign, Almanzor forced the Caliph to issue a formal declaration, recognising his sons as the rulers of al-Andalus upon his death. Almanzor's son, Abd al-Rahman Sanchuelo, later convinced Hisham to appoint him as heir to the Caliphate. However, Abd al-Rahman Sanchuelo was captured and killed, and another Umayyad, Muhammad al-Mahdi, deposed Hisham as Caliph. After this, al-Andalus saw a period of great instability that eventually resulted in the Caliphate of Cordoba fracturing into multiple smaller states.
Society
ARABS
Al-Andalus was conquered under the Umayyads, who were an Arab dynasty, and was ruled by an Arab elite. This political elite was not limited to ethnic Arabs, but also included Berbers who adopted Arab culture. Nevertheless, biological Arab descent was a symbol of status.
BERBERS
Most of the soldiers who carried out the original invasion were not Arabs, but Berbers, an indigenous people from North Africa who had recently been converted to Islam after the Islamic Conquest. Some areas of al-Andalus were populated by Berber-dominated societies which often ignored the Umayyads authority. Throughout Umayyad rule of al-Andalus, there were frequent Berber revolts.
MULLAWADS
Before the Islamic conquest in 711, the population of the Iberian Peninsula was overwhelmingly Christian. However, by the collapse of the Caliphate of Cordoba in 1031, the population was majority Muslim. European converts to Islam, and their descendants, were referred to as Mullawads.
CHRISTIANS
The Conquest of Iberia lead to the destruction of the Visigothic nobility, and most literate members of society fled to other Christian kingdoms. The flight of the educated lead to a swift decline in Christian Latin Culture. The first few centuries of Muslim rule saw a rapid conversion to Islam by Christians, who eventually became a very small minority.
Following the Islamic Conquest of Iberia, peace treaties were signed promising to respect the lives, properties, and status of non-Muslims. These agreements also promised not to interfere in Christian religious affairs or destroy churches. Christians were not granted any political rights or power. The conquered non-Muslims, referred to as dhimmis, were required to pay an additional tax, the jizya.
Despite these agreements, the status of Christians underwent significant changes depending on the ruler. Under some rulers, there was close collaboration between religious groups, but under others, Christians were faced with restrictions and the destruction of churches. In the first decades of Muslim rule, more than forty Christians, or Muslims of Christian ancestry, were put to death for blasphemy against Islam.
JEWS
Under Visigothic rule, Jews in Iberia had been subject to a variety of restrictions and frequent anti-Jewish legislation. The Muslim conquest of Iberia increased the personal freedom of Jews and also gave their religion formal recognition. Thus, the Islamic conquest led to a revival of Hebrew and Jewish culture.
Al-Andalus was conquered under the Umayyads, who were an Arab dynasty, and was ruled by an Arab elite. This political elite was not limited to ethnic Arabs, but also included Berbers who adopted Arab culture. Nevertheless, biological Arab descent was a symbol of status.
BERBERS
Most of the soldiers who carried out the original invasion were not Arabs, but Berbers, an indigenous people from North Africa who had recently been converted to Islam after the Islamic Conquest. Some areas of al-Andalus were populated by Berber-dominated societies which often ignored the Umayyads authority. Throughout Umayyad rule of al-Andalus, there were frequent Berber revolts.
MULLAWADS
Before the Islamic conquest in 711, the population of the Iberian Peninsula was overwhelmingly Christian. However, by the collapse of the Caliphate of Cordoba in 1031, the population was majority Muslim. European converts to Islam, and their descendants, were referred to as Mullawads.
CHRISTIANS
The Conquest of Iberia lead to the destruction of the Visigothic nobility, and most literate members of society fled to other Christian kingdoms. The flight of the educated lead to a swift decline in Christian Latin Culture. The first few centuries of Muslim rule saw a rapid conversion to Islam by Christians, who eventually became a very small minority.
Following the Islamic Conquest of Iberia, peace treaties were signed promising to respect the lives, properties, and status of non-Muslims. These agreements also promised not to interfere in Christian religious affairs or destroy churches. Christians were not granted any political rights or power. The conquered non-Muslims, referred to as dhimmis, were required to pay an additional tax, the jizya.
Despite these agreements, the status of Christians underwent significant changes depending on the ruler. Under some rulers, there was close collaboration between religious groups, but under others, Christians were faced with restrictions and the destruction of churches. In the first decades of Muslim rule, more than forty Christians, or Muslims of Christian ancestry, were put to death for blasphemy against Islam.
JEWS
Under Visigothic rule, Jews in Iberia had been subject to a variety of restrictions and frequent anti-Jewish legislation. The Muslim conquest of Iberia increased the personal freedom of Jews and also gave their religion formal recognition. Thus, the Islamic conquest led to a revival of Hebrew and Jewish culture.
Al-Andalus
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